gender and politeness alamat Download here
being politically impolite: extending politeness theory to adversarial discourse
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broadening the horizon of linguistic politeness (pragmatic)
Jumat, 18 Mei 2012
Minggu, 10 April 2011
Summary of morphology
1.1 Morphology
Morphology is the study of investigating basic forms in language or the study of forms. A beeter way of looking at linguistic forms in different languages would be to use this nation of elements in the message, rather tha identifying only words. For example : in Swahili (spoken through out East Africa), the nitakupenda convoys what in English would haveto be represented as separate words like I wiil love you.
Ni -ta -ku -penda
I will you love
1.2 Morphemes
Morpheme is a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical fungtion. It is a minimal unit which indicates the meaning. For example of elements are –s, -er, -ed, -ing, ect.
e.g : “reopened” consists of three morphemes, re-, open, -ed
re- : again
open : open
-ed : indicating past tense
1.3 Free and bound morphemes
There are two types of morphemes, free morphemes and bound morphemes.
a. free morphemes is the morphemes which can stand by them self as single words. For example : open and tour
b. bound morphemes is the morphemes which can not stand alone and are typically attached to another forms/ suffix and affix (re-, -ist, -ed, -s, ect.). for example :
Undressed
un- dress -ed
prefix stem suffix
(bound) (free) (bound)
1.4 Lexical and functional morphemes
a. Lexical morphemes are free morphemes which fall into two catagories set nouns, adjectives, and verbs as a content. It is treated as an ‘open’ class of words. For example : girl, man, house, ect.
b. Functional morphemes are also free morphemes, but the se consists largely of the functional words in the language such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns. It is described as a ‘close’ class of words. For example : and, but, when, on, near, above, in, the, that, ect.
1.5 Derivational and inflectional morphemes
a. Derivational morphemes are used to make new words or to make words of different grammatical category from the stem. For example :
-ness changes the adjective “good” to the noun “goodness”
-full changes the noun “care” to the adjective “careful”
b. Inflectional morphemes are used to produse new words in the language, but rather to indicate aspects of the grammatical function of a word. It shows if a word is plural or singular, past tense or not, comparative or passive form.
Noun + -s, s
Verbs + -s, -ed, -ing, -en
Adjective + -est, -er
1.6. morphology description
The difference between derivational and inflectional morphemes is worth emphasizing. For example, both old and older are adjectives. –er inflection, a derivational morphemes can change the grammatical category of a word “teach” becomes the noun “teacher”.
The child’s wildness shocked the teachers.
The : functional -ness : derivational teach : lexical
Child : lexical shock : lexical -er : derivational
-‘s : inflectional -ed : inflectional -s : inflectional
Wild : lexical the : functional
Lexical (child, teach)
free functional (and, the)
Morphemese
Bound derivational (re-, -ness)
Inflectional (-‘s, -ed)
1.7 problems in morphological description
English words in different morphemes are easily identifiable as saperate elements. In analysis of different language, the solution to some of this problems are clearer in some instances than in others. For example: law and legal. A full description of English morphology will have to take account of both historical influences and the effect of borrowed elements.
1.8 Morphs and Allomorphs
Morphs are the actual forms used to realize morphemes. For example, the form cars consists of two morphs, car + -s, realizing a lexical morpheme (plural), so there are one morph used to realize the inflectional morpheme “plural”.
Allomorphs are a particular morphemes or a group of different morphs, all versionsof one morpheme. We can use the prefix “allo-“ (= one of a closely related set). For example, man + plural, we have a vowel change in the word (a becomes e) as the morphs that produces the so- called “irregural” plural form men.
1.9 Other languages
At morphology of other languages, we can find another forms and petterns realizing the basic type of morphemes. For example bellow is from English and Aztec (from Central America). In both cases are attached with a derivational morpheme to a stem then added an inflectional morpheme.
Stem derivational inflectional
Dark + en (make) + ed (past) = darkened
Mic (die) + tia (cause to) + s (future) = mictias (will kill)
Different pettern occur in other languages. In this examples, there seems to be repetation of the first part of the singular form. When the first part is bi- in the singular, the plural begins with this form repeted bibi-. The process involved here is technically known as reduplication (= repeating all or part of a form). Talon (field) singular becomes tatalon (fields) plural.
1.10 Kanuri
Kanuri is a language spoken in Nigeria. For example :
Adjective noun
(excellent) karirte nemkarite (excellence)
(small) kura nemkura (bigness)
Derivational morpheme : prefix nem- noun from adjective.
1.11 Ganda
Ganda is a language spoken in Uganda. Different languages also employ different means to produce inflectional marking on forms. For example :
Singular plural
(doctor) omusawo abasawo (doctors)
(woman) omukazi abakazi (women)
Inflectional prefix : omu- as a singular and aba- as a plural.
1.12 Ilocano
Ilocano is a language of the Philippines. We find different way of making plurals.
Singular plural
(head) ulo ululo (heads)
(road) dalan daldalan (roads)
The process involved here is technical known as reduplication (= repeating all or part of a form).
1.13 Tagalog
Tagalong is alanguage spoken in philippines.
Basa (read) tawag (call) sulat (write)
Bumasa (read!) tumawag (call!) simulat (write!)
Babasa (will read) tatawag (will call) susulat (will write)
paraphrase of "The wife of Usher’s wife"
I. Paraphrase
In this time, we will try to analyze a poem of “The wife of Usher’s wife”. Actually, “The Wife of Usher's Well" is a traditional ballad, catalogued as Child Ballad 79, originally from Britain, but also popular in North America. No complete original version has survived, but the song as been "remade" in America in a cohesive form.
A ballad is a short narrative poem which is written to be sung and has a simple but dramatic theme. Ballads can be of love, death, the supernatural or even a combination of the three. Many ballads also contain a moral which is expressed in the final stanza.
The ballad concerns a woman from Usher's Well, who sends her three sons away to school in some versions, and a few weeks after learns that they had died. When she finds that they cannot be recovered, she goes mad. The woman grieves bitterly for the loss of her children, cursing the winds and sea. She uses magic to compel their return, but they return as ghosts and must vanish with the morning.
It focuses on the negative effects of obligation. As well as grief and mourning, the common themes of death at the hands of the sea displeasure with the commissioner of the sea voyages, grief, and the supernatural and even common winter time setting. “The Wife of Usher’s Well,” however, portrays a more realistic view of tragedy, obligation and grief. The visitation of three dead sons is notwithstanding.
We also would like to make some notes in lexical meaning of this poem because there are many words that come from old period that we don’t understand. This is the real poem from the source.
The wife of Usher’s wife
There lived a wife at Usher's Well,
And a wealthy wife was she;
She had three stout and stalwart sons,
And sent them over the sea.
They hadna been a week from her,
A week but barely ane,
Whan word came to the carline wife,
That her three sons were gane.
They hadna been a week from her,
A week but barely three,
Whan word came to the carlin wife
That her three sons were gone.
"I wish the wind may never cease,
Nor fashes in the flood,
Till my three sons come hame to me,
In earthly flesh and blood."
It befell about the Martinmass,
When nights are long and mirk,
The carlin wife's three sons came hame,
And their hats were o the birk.
It neither grew in syke nor ditch,
Nor yet in ony sheugh;
But at the gates o Paradise,
That birk grew fair enough
"Blow up the fire my maidens,
Bring water from the well;
For a' my house shall feast this night,
Since my three sons are well."
And she has made to them a bed,
She's made it large and wide,
And she's taen her mantle her about,
Sat down at the bed-side.
Up then crew the red, red, cock,
And up the crew the gray;
The eldest to the youngest said,
'Tis time we were away.
The cock he hadna crawed but once,
And clappd his wings at a',
When the youngest to the eldest said,
Brother, we must awa.
The cock doth craw, the day both daw,
The cahannerin worm doth chide;
Gin we be mist out o our place,
A sair pain we maun bide.
"Fare ye weel, my mother dear!
Fareweel to barn and byre!
And fare ye weel, the bonny lass
That kindles my mother's fire!"
And a wealthy wife was she;
She had three stout and stalwart sons,
And sent them over the sea.
They hadna been a week from her,
A week but barely ane,
Whan word came to the carline wife,
That her three sons were gane.
They hadna been a week from her,
A week but barely three,
Whan word came to the carlin wife
That her three sons were gone.
"I wish the wind may never cease,
Nor fashes in the flood,
Till my three sons come hame to me,
In earthly flesh and blood."
It befell about the Martinmass,
When nights are long and mirk,
The carlin wife's three sons came hame,
And their hats were o the birk.
It neither grew in syke nor ditch,
Nor yet in ony sheugh;
But at the gates o Paradise,
That birk grew fair enough
"Blow up the fire my maidens,
Bring water from the well;
For a' my house shall feast this night,
Since my three sons are well."
And she has made to them a bed,
She's made it large and wide,
And she's taen her mantle her about,
Sat down at the bed-side.
Up then crew the red, red, cock,
And up the crew the gray;
The eldest to the youngest said,
'Tis time we were away.
The cock he hadna crawed but once,
And clappd his wings at a',
When the youngest to the eldest said,
Brother, we must awa.
The cock doth craw, the day both daw,
The cahannerin worm doth chide;
Gin we be mist out o our place,
A sair pain we maun bide.
"Fare ye weel, my mother dear!
Fareweel to barn and byre!
And fare ye weel, the bonny lass
That kindles my mother's fire!"
note :
1. usher’s well : evidently a fictitious place-name
2. ane : one
3. carline : old
4. fashes : tumults
5. flood : sea
6. Martinmass : November 11, the feast of the St. Martin
7. Lang : long
8. mirk : dark
9. hame : home
10. birk : birch
11. syke : trench
12. sheigh : furrow
13. channerin : grumbling, fretting
14. sair : sore
15. maun : must
16. bide : endure
17. byre : cattle shed
II. characteristics of period
We can look for certain characteristics that identify a ballad, including these:
· Simple language.
This traditional ballad is composed for audiences of non-specialist hearers or readers. Therefore, they feature language that people can understand without specialist training or repeated readings. When later poets choose to write ballads, regardless of their intended audience, the choice of the ballad form generally implies a similar emphasis on simple language. Sometimes poets write ballads specifically to react against poetry they see as overly intellectual or obscure.
· Stories.
Ballads tend to be narrative poems, poems that tell stories, as opposed to lyric poems, which emphasize the emotions of the speaker.
There lived a wife at Usher's Well,
And a wealthy wife was she;
She had three stout and stalwart sons,
And sent them over the sea.
They hadna been a week from her,
A week but barely ane,
Whan word came to the carline wife,
That her three sons were gane.
And a wealthy wife was she;
She had three stout and stalwart sons,
And sent them over the sea.
They hadna been a week from her,
A week but barely ane,
Whan word came to the carline wife,
That her three sons were gane.
· Ballad stanzas.
We get that the traditional ballad stanza consists of four lines, rhymed abcb. The first and third lines have four stresses, while the second and fourth have three.
They hadna been a week from her,
A week but barely ane,
Whan word came to the carline wife,
That her three sons were gane.
A week but barely ane,
Whan word came to the carline wife,
That her three sons were gane.
· Repetition.
A ballad has a refrain, a repeated section that divides segments of the story. Many ballads also employ incremental repetition, in which a phrase recurs with minor differences as the story progresses.
"Fare ye weel, my mother dear!
Fareweel to barn and byre!
And fare ye weel, the bonny lass
That kindles my mother's fire!"
Fareweel to barn and byre!
And fare ye weel, the bonny lass
That kindles my mother's fire!"
· Dialogue.
In a narrative genre, ballads often incorporate multiple characters into their stories. Often, since changes of voice were communicated orally, written transcriptions of oral ballads give little or no indication that the speaker has changed. Writers of literary ballads, the later poems that imitate oral ballads, sometimes play with this convention.
Below is the example of dialogue;
"Fare ye weel, my mother dear!
Fareweel to barn and byre!
And fare ye weel, the bonny lass
That kindles my mother's fire!"
Fareweel to barn and byre!
And fare ye weel, the bonny lass
That kindles my mother's fire!"
· Third-person objective narration.
Ballad narrators usually do not speak in the first person (unless speaking as a character in the story), and they often do not comment on their reactions to the emotional content of the ballad. So, we think that the stanza below is the third-person objective.
"I wish the wind may never cease,
Nor fashes in the flood,
Till my three sons come hame to me,
In earthly flesh and blood."
Nor fashes in the flood,
Till my three sons come hame to me,
In earthly flesh and blood."
· Period
Because it describes the return of the ghosts of three sons who return to their mother at Martinmas, the feast of St. Martin was held on November the eleventh, one of the Scottish quarter days. It is usually referred to as Martinmas but pronounced Martimas. It was the same day as Hallowe'en in the old calendar.
We also find that even the author and origin of the ballad are not known, but is commonly dated as being 17th century. It first appears in print in Scott’s Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border in 1802.
III. conclusion
In conclusion, a Ballad is a short narrative poem which is written to be sung and has a simple but dramatic theme. This Ballad is about love, death, and supernatural that is a combination of the three. There are also characteristics of period in identifying this Ballad, such as the simple language, stories, dialogue, third-person objective narration, and the Period. I think the poem of The wife of Usher’s wife is the old tradition about magic but it contains a tragedy which is so dramatic.
The Diamond Necklace paper
INTRODUCTION
Background
The short story which we analyze in this occasion is “the diamond necklace”. It is written by Guy De Maupassant. He is French, this story tells about French people with their reality problem may be occur. It is kind of modern literary works. We can know it from the language using. It was written in the 19th century.
This one tells about a young couple lived in a poor condition. Matilda Loisel was a simple woman, she never adorn he self. She had no dowry, no hopes. She had married with George, a petty clerk in the office of the board of education.
She had a rich friend, her schoolmate at the convent whom she didn’t like to visit; she suffered so much when she returned, and she wept for whole days from chagrin, from regret, from despair and disappointment. Although her live was in poor condition, it could be conducted till a happening occurred changing her life. Make it more suffer than now. One day her husband gave her envelope containing surprising news for Matilda. Her husband has selected getting an opportunity joining the ball hold in George’s office. He thought that Matilda will be happy about it because it was the opportunity she waited for. But she gave an unexpected response, Matilda was sad, because she had now everything needed to go to the ball. She didn’t have nice dress and accessories to wear. She began to cry she wanted to refuse that ball invitation, but George’s tried to ensure her to be confident whatever she wore. Matilda keep not being confident to meet other people wore beautiful party dress in the ball.
George’s gave her 400 French to buy party dress, she was very happy, but she needed jewelry to make her performance better. George’s suggested her to borrow accessories from her rich friend, Madame Forestier. Matilda borrowed a beautiful diamond necklace from her friend. It was in a black satin box.
The day of the ball arrived. Madam Loisel was a great success, she looked very pretty, elegant, with gracious, smile and full of joy. All the members of the cabinet gave attention to her. She danced with enthusiasm. She was very proud of her self, with all she wore at the time.
The ball was end, she realized that the diamond necklace was disappeared from her neck. It was lost. Matilda and George’s looked for it everywhere but is wasn’t found. Finally they decided to replaced it with the another diamond necklace exactly like the one that lost that price is 40.000 franc. They could get it for 36.000 French. After replacing those necklaces, their life was poorer than before with more much suffers.
One day, Madam Loisel was taking walk; she met madam Forestier on the street. She was very surprised with the condition of Matilda, she looked old now. Matilda told that actually she had lost her necklace then returned it with another like Madam foreister’s. Her friend was very surprised because that hers were false and not worth. It was just not more than 500 francs.
Teory
Theme is the meaning of the story whether it is in the whole or half in the story.
Theme is not a topic, a subject, moral and the hidden meanings.
Analyze theme of the diamond necklace
Theme:
A desire of a wife to be a rich man that make her fall into big responsibility which require her and her husband spend all of the time of her life to solve the problem they caused.
The reason:
1. Suitable with story because when reader read this theme,the reader know the meaning of this story without reading all of this story.
2. Suitable with plot because the problem of this story beginning with the dream’s of wife to be a richman and the last, her family get poorer.and more suffer than before.
3. The theme reinforces the values that use in the story, so in this story the theme suitable with the plot of diamond necklace.
1. The title is not informative; it means that the diamond necklace is main object of the story. The meaning does not change because the diamond necklace triggers the conflict and it appears from the first till the last story. The title does not help us to formulate a theme because the title is too general. If I am as the author, I will use “” become the title of this story.
2. “instead of being delighted, as her husband had hoped, she threw the invitation spitefully upon the table murmuring : ‘what do you suppose I want with that?’
‘ but my dearie, I though it would make you happy. You never go out, and this is an occasion, and a fine one! I had a great deal of trouble to get it. Everybody wishes one, and it is very select; not many are given to employees. You will see the whole official world there.’
She looked at him with an irritated eye and declared impatiently:
‘ what do you suppose I have to wear to such a thing as that?
He had not trough of that; he stammered:
‘why, the dress you wear when we go to the theatre. It seems very pretty to me—‘
He was silent, stupefied, in dismay, at the sight of his wife weeping. Two great tears fell slowly from the corner of his eyes toward the corner of his mouth; he stammered:
‘What is the matter? What is the matter?’
By a violent effort, she had controlled her vexation and responded in a calm voice, weeping her moist cheeks:
‘Nothing, only I have no dress and consequently I cannot go to this affair. Give your card to some colleague whose wife is better fitted out than I.’
He was greaved, but aswered :
Let us see,how much would a suitable costum cost, something that would serve for other occasion, something very simple?’
She reflected for some second, making estimates and thinking of a sum that she could ask for without bringing from the economical clerk.
Finally she said, in a hesitating voice:
I can not tell exactly, but it seems to me that four hundred french ought to cover it .’
He turned a little pale for he had saved just this sum to buy a gun that he might be able to join some hunting parties the next summer, on the plains of nanterre, with some friend who went to shoot larks up there on Sunday. Nevertheless, he answered:
‘very well, i will give you four hundred francs. But try to have a pretty dress.
3. The meaning of the story embodied in the whole story because it represents all of events in that story.
Conclusion
The theme of this short story is “A desire of a wife to be rich men that make her fall into big responsibility which require her and her husband spend all of the time of her life to solve the problem they caused.” Because it suitable with story because when reader read this theme, the reader know the meaning of this story without reading all of this story.
It suitable with plot because the problem of this story beginning with the dream’s of wife to be a richman and the last, her family get poorer.and more suffer than before.
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